Plastics and the Ocean

1 Cover

2 Title Page Plastics and the Ocean: Origin, Characterization, Fate, and Impacts Edited by Anthony L. Andrady North Carolina, USA

3 Copyright Page

4 Dedication

5 List of Contributors

6 Preface An Already Stressed Ocean Is it a Cause for Concern? How Much of a Threat do Plastics in the Ocean Pose?

7 Foreword

8 1 Plastics in the Anthropocene 1.1 What Are Plastics? 1.2 Plastics at Present and in the Future 1.3 Ingestion of Microplastics Marine Organisms 1.4 Sustainability of Plastics 1.5 Plastic Manufacturing 1.6 Polymers: A Basic Introduction 1.7 Societal Benefits of Plastics References

9 2 Plastic Additives in the Ocean 2.1 Function of Plastic Additive Classes 2.2 Functional Additives 2.3 Sources, Transport, and Fate of Additives in the Ocean 2.4 Degradation of Plastic Additives in the Marine Environment 2.5 Detection in the Marine Environment 2.6 Toxicity of Additives 2.7 NIST Disclaimer References

10 3 Deconstructing the Plastic Soup : 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Methods for Determining Plastic Pollution Sources 3.3 Discussion 3.4 Conclusions Acknowledgments References

11 4 Collection and Characterization of Microplastics Debris in Marine Ecosystems 4.1 Introduction 4.2 MP Sampling 4.3 Sample Processing 4.4 Characterization and Quantification 4.5 Summary and Outlook 4.6 Conclusions References

12 5 Estimating Microplastics in Deep Water 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Sampling Methods 5.3 Spatial Patterns of MPs in Water Columns 5.4 The Export of Microplastics from the Surface Water to the Deep Sea 5.5 Knowledge gaps and conclusion References

13 6 Marine Litter, Plastic, and Microplastics on the Seafloor 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Methods Used to Monitor Seafloor Litter 6.3 Sources 6.4 Oceanographic Conditions on the Seafloor 6.5 Accumulation Areas of Litter at the Seafloor 6.6 Importance of ALDFG 6.7 Nature and Distribution of Seafloor Litter 6.8 Microplastics 6.9 Impacts 6.10 Trends and Monitoring 6.11 Management Measures and Perspectives 6.12 Conclusions and Perspectives Acknowledgments References

14 7 Plastics in Freshwater Bodies 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Monitoring of Plastics in Freshwater Bodies 7.3 Global Observational Efforts 7.4 Modeling Plastics in Rivers and Lakes 7.5 Prospects and Opportunities References

15 8 Degradation and Fragmentation of Microplastics 8.1 Classifying Degradation 8.2 Weathering Under Laboratory Accelerated Conditions 8.3 Photo‐Oxidation Pathways of Common Plastics 8.4 Changes Accompanying Weathering of Plastics 8.5 Weathering of Plastics in the Marine Environment 8.6 Studies on Weathering of Plastics in Seawater 8.7 Fragmentation of Plastics in Marine Weathering 8.8 Conclusions References

16 9 Pollutants Sorbed Onto Microplastics 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Pollutants Sorbed by MPs 9.3 Influencing Factors 9.4 Sorption Kinetics and Isotherms 9.5 Sorption Mechanism 9.6 Conclusions References

17 10 Colonization of Plastic Marine Debris 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Preamble 10.3 The Known 10.4 The Unknown, but Knowable 10.5 The Unknowable 10.6 Conclusion References

18 11 Marine Biodegradation of Common Plastics 11.1 The Marine Environment 11.2 Rates of Biodegradation of Common Plastics 11.3 Plastics That Are Effectively Nonbiodegradable: Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and Polystyrene 11.4 Assessing Biodegradation and Mineralization 11.5 Standardized Tests to Assess Biodegradation References

19 12 Ingestion of Microplastics by Marine Animals 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Ingestion of Microplastics by Marine Organisms 12.3 The Impacts of Microplastic Ingestion on Marine Organisms 12.4 Impacts of Plastic‐Associated Chemicals on Organisms 12.5 Conclusion References

20 13 Microplastics in Fish and Seafood Species 13.1 Introduction 13.2 How Microplastics Can Enter Seafood and Transfer to Humans 13.3 Microplastics in the Seafood Supply Chain 13.4 Consequences of Microplastics in Seafood 13.5 Conclusion References

21 14 Nanoplastics and the Marine Environment 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Interactions Between Nanoplastics and Marine Microbiota 14.3 Impact of Nanoplastics on Marine Phototrophic Microorganisms 14.4 Impact of Nanoplastics on Marine Heterotrophic Microorganisms 14.5 Ecosystem Implications 14.6 Potential Effects of Nanoplastics on Humans 14.7 Outlook and Future Considerations References

22 15 Human Behavior and Marine Plastic Pollution 15.1 Introduction: Human Behavior and Marine Plastic Pollution 15.2 Human Behavior 15.3 Scoping Review of Behavior Change Interventions 2015–2020 15.4 Plastic Pollution and Behavior in the Global South 15.5 Research Gaps and Limitations 15.6 Remaining Challenges 15.7 Conclusion Acknowledgements References

23 16 Legal and Policy Frameworks for Preventing and Reducing Marine Plastic Pollution 16.1 Introduction to the Governance of Plastic Pollution 16.2 Overview of Legal and Policy Instruments 16.3 Regional Instruments 16.4 National Regulations and Policies 16.5 Conclusion References

24 Index

25 End User License Agreement

1 Chapter 1 Table 1.1 Abundance of the top seven items found in global coastal cleanup b... Table 1.2 Comparison of the embodied energy (GJ/kg) and carbon footprint (k... Table 1.3 A simple classification of plastics based on their feedstock. Table 1.4 Estimated environmental impacts of plastic manufacture (per 1000 ... Table 1.5 Common plastics litter found in the marine environment. Table 1.6 Characteristics of plastics typically encountered in marine debri... Table 1.7 Applications of common types of plastics. Table 1.8 Energy and carbon footprint associated with packaging milk in var... Table 1.9 Embodied energy and carbon data for 8‐inch diameter water pipes....

2 Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Classes of plastic additives, typical loadings, and percent share... Table 2.2 Eight of the most commonly used phthalate plasticizers in PVC.... Table 2.3 Examples of common antioxidant additives used in plastics. Table 2.4 Industrial releases of toxic plastic additives as reported to the... Table 2.5 Reported log K owvalues, water solubility, molecular weight, and... Table 2.6 Examples of review articles discussing the toxicities of plastic ... Table 2.7 Plastic additives that are endocrine‐disrupting compounds.

3 Chapter 3 Table 3.1 (A) Emission rates and quantities of plastic to the environment a...

4 Chapter 4Table 4.1 Summary of density separation methods used to separate microplast...Table 4.2 Summary of chemicals used for digestion of marine organisms to ex...Table 4.3 The assignment for ATR‐FTIR spectral features of some plastics....Table 4.4 Advantages and limitations of the commonly used MP identification...

5 Chapter 5Table 5.1 Summary of published studies quantifying microplastic pollution in...

6 Chapter 6Table 6.1 A review of data published since 2010 on seafloor litter, as coll...Table 6.2 A review of data published since 2010 on seafloor litter, as coll...Table 6.3 A review of data published since 2010 on sediment microplastics.

7 Chapter 7Table 7.1 Overview of plastic transport models.Table 7.2 Existing models and observation‐based estimates for river plastic...

8 Chapter 8Table 8.1 A comparison of radiation sources used in laboratory‐accelerated ...Table 8.2 Position of component peaks that compose the broad carbonyl absor...Table 8.3 Factors that control photodegradation of plastics in different oc...Table 8.4 Comparison of natural weathering data for plastic material expose...Table 8.5 Summary of recent publications on natural weathering of common pl...Table 8.6 Summary of publications on laboratory‐accelerated weathering of c...

9 Chapter 9Table 9.1 Sorption of antibiotics by MPs.Table 9.2 Sorption of PAHs, PCBs, HCHs, and DDTs by MPs.Table 9.3 Sorption of flame retardants and fuel aromatics onto MPs.Table 9.4 Sorption of other types of pollutants by MPs.Table 9.5 Sorption of metals ions onto MPs.