Andrew Radford - Linguistics An Introduction [Second Edition]

314

The Null Subject Parameter

319

Parametric differences between English and German

321

Exercises

325

23 Sentence meanings and Logical Form

330

Preliminaries

330

Thematic roles

333

A philosophical diversion

336

Covert movement and Logical Form

339

Exercises

345

24 Children’s sentences

349

Setting parameters: an example

350

Null subjects in early Child English

351

Non-finite clauses in Child English

354

Children’s nominals

358

Exercises

361

25 Sentence processing

366

Click studies

367

Processing empty categories

368

Strategies of sentence processing

370

Exercises

375

Contents

ix

26 Syntactic disorders

377

Agrammatism

378

Paragrammatism

382

Specific Language Impairment (SLI)

383

Exercises

386

27 Using sentences

388

Context and pronouns

388

Topic/focus

389

Presuppositions

392

Doing things with words

394

The logic of conversation

395

Context and coherence

397

Relevance Theory

398

Taking turns

400

Exercises

402

Further reading and references

405

Conclusion

407

Appendix 1 The International Phonetic Alphabet

411

Appendix 2 Phonological distinctive features

412

Appendix 3 Distinctive feature matrix for English

consonant phonemes

414

Bibliography

415

Index

422

Illustrations

Figures

1 The human cerebral cortex, with the functions of some

areas indicated page 12

2 The human cerebral cortex, with Broca’s Area (BA) and

Wernicke’s Area (WA) indicated

12

3a Centralisation and age on Martha’s Vineyard

19

3b Location and centralisation on Martha’s Vineyard

19

3c Leavers and stayers on Martha’s Vineyard

20

4 Cross-section of the human vocal tract

28

5 Cross-section of the vocal tract, illustrating the articulation

of [m]

30

6 Cross-section of the vocal tract, illustrating the articulation of [n]

30

7 Cross-section of the vocal tract, illustrating the articulation of [ŋ]

31

8 Cross-section of the vocal tract, illustrating the articulation of

interdental sounds

32

9 Cross-section of the vocal tract, illustrating the articulation of

labiodental sounds

32

10 Cross-section of the vocal tract, illustrating the articulation of [j]

32

11 Cross-section of the vocal tract, illustrating the articulation of

palato-alveolar sounds

33

12 The vowel quadrilateral (including only short vowels)

37

13 The vowel quadrilateral (with long vowels)

38

14 The vowel quadrilateral, including mid-closed vowels

38

15 The diphthongs of English

39

16 The vowel quadrilateral, including central vowels

40

17 Sound variation and speaker educational achievement: vowel

assimilation in Tehran Farsi

49

18 The use of standard pronunciations of (ing) and speaker sex

and social class

50

19 Ethnic variation in New Zealand English

50

20 Degree of backing of /ʌ/ among students at a Detroit high school

53

21 A travel agent’s style shifting to clients: (t)-flapping

54

22a Percentage of department store assistants using [r] by store

58

22b Percentage of Saks department store assistants using [r] by age

58

x

List of illustrations

xi

22c Casual and emphatic pronunciations of [r] in New York

department stores

59

23 Stylistic shifts in the speech of a lecturer

60

24 The pronunciation of (o) in Ucieda Spanish by speaker

occupation

60

25 A vowel split in London

65

26 The Northern Cities Chain Shift

67

27 The devoicing of /v/ to [f] in Netherlands and Belgian Dutch

between 1935 and 1993

73

28 An Optimality Theory tableau for the input /pin/ in English

91

29 Preliminary model of child phonology

98

30 Lateral harmony as feature spreading

102

31 Lateral harmony: constructing the output UR

103

32 A dual-lexicon model of child phonology

104

33 Matching input representation to syllable structure template

105

34 Results of an identification experiment for an [ɪ – ɛ]-series

111

35 Results of a discrimination experiment for an [ɪ – ɛ]-series

111

36 Results of an identification experiment for a [b – p]-series

112

37 Results of a discrimination experiment for a [b – p]-series

113

38 A simplified version of the scan-copier model of speech

production

116

39 One view of the structure of the mental lexicon, illustrating

the form of a lexical entry

205

40 A simple concept

206

41 Five conditions in a word/non-word recognition experiment

207

42 Differences between types of speech errors

208

43 Reported use of lexical pairs in New Zealand English

227

44 The adoption of British English by Canadian children

228

45 The lexical attrition of dwile in East Anglia

229

46 Speaker sex and the use of (ing) in casual speech in three

English-speaking cities

234

47a Social class and the use of (ing) in casual speech in Norwich

235

47b Speech style and the use of (ing) among upper working-class

residents of Norwich

235

48 Changes in the use of (ing) in Norwich across the generations

236

49 Ethnicity, levels of interethnic contact and the use of AAVE

morphological features

237

50 Third person singular present tense zero in three locations in

East Anglia

240

Map

The lexical attrition of the word dwile in East Anglia

229

Tables

1 IPA transcription for the English consonants page 29

2 Consonantal sounds arranged by place and manner of

articulation

35

3 The omission of [h] in Bradford

48

4 (th) and (ʌ) in the speech of two Belfast residents

51

5 Deletion of [t] and [d] in English

55

6 A hypothetical implicational scale

56

7 Social, contextual and linguistic variables from Labov’s

study of (r) in New York department stores

57

8 Spirantisation in Liverpool

63

9 Vowel changes in contemporary varieties of English

64

10 [ɑː] and [æ] in Standard British English (RP)

69

11 Vowel changes in an English dialect

72

12 The English phoneme inventory

78

13 A distinctive feature matrix for some common vowels

93

14 Personal pronouns in English

134

15 Examples of derivational morphology in English

144

16 Forms of the Turkish noun EV ‘house’

157

17 Forms of the Latin noun VILLA ‘country house’

157

18 Forms of the Latin noun FELES ‘cat’

158

19 Equivalences between Old and Modern English and other

Germanic languages

231

20 The present tense forms of Modern English help and their

equivalents in Old English and Modern German

234

21 Changes in the Old English suffixes -inde and -inge/-ynge

236

xii

Preface to the second edition

The overall structure of the book is unaltered from the first edition. Our justification for this is set out in the note for course organisers from the first edition that immediately follows this preface. We have, however, made a number of significant modifications.