Andrew Radford - Linguistics An Introduction [Second Edition]

‘one’

high level

yí

‘lose’

rising

ˇ

y

‘already’ fall

rise

yì

‘idea’

falling

Both level tones and contour tones qualify a language as having lexical tone, i.e. as being a tone language. English is not a tone language, but, like all spoken languages, it uses pitch extensively. The uses of pitch with which we are familiar in English are uses of our final prosodic phenomenon, intonation. Consider the instances of the word me in (26), where the pitch is represented graphically: (26)

44

sounds

The pitches applied to these words are very similar to the contour tones of

languages like Chinese. However, in English such changes do not produce

completely different meanings; each of (26a) to (26e) involves a reference to the speaker, but by changing the ‘tone’ over the word the speaker changes the attitude he or she is expressing. Thus, we move from a simple statement (26a) to a question

(26b), to a strong assertion (26c), to a matter of fact assertion (26d) and in (26e), to an expression of disbelief. Unlike in Chinese, however, these tones cannot be regarded as an inherent part of a single word. If the utterance consists of more than one syllable, as in (27), then we find the tone is spread over the whole of that utterance and gives rise to the same range of attitudes as we saw in (26): (27)

As observed already, all spoken languages make use of intonation (including those like Chinese, Serbo-Croatian or Yoruba that have lexical tone), though the exact use differs greatly from one language to another and from one dialect to another. Knowing intonation patterns is an important though often neglected part of speaking a foreign language, and many intonation patterns which sound polite in one language or dialect sound rude or funny in another. It is said that the British regard Americans as rude and pushy in part because neutral, polite American intonation sounds peremptory to a British speaker, while Americans often feel that Britons are overweening or fawning because what is neutral for British intonation sounds over the top to the American ear.

This section has provided a basic description of the sounds of language. In the

next section we ’ll see how different varieties of one and the same language can be distinguished by the types of sounds they use and the ways in which they use them

(exercises 7, 8 and 9).

Exercises

1.

Using the IPA chart, give a phonetic characterisation of the following

consonants:

(a) ʒ, (b) ŋ, (c) h, (d) ɬ

Model answer for (1a) -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

As regards manner, [ʒ] is a fricative as its production does not involve

complete closure of the vocal tract, but the articulators do come

closely enough together to produce friction. In terms of its place of

articulation, this consonant requires the blade of the tongue to

approach an area between the hard palate and the alveolar ridge – it

is a palato-alveolar. As a palato-alveolar fricative, it is paired with [ʃ], but whereas the latter is unvoiced, [ʒ] is voiced. Thus, it is a voiced

Sounds and suprasegmentals

45

palato-alveolar fricative. It occurs in English in such words as leisure,

pleasure and some pronunciations of garage.

2.

Using the IPA chart, give a description of the following sounds:

(a) ɣ, (b) ɮ, (c) ɸ, (d) ʐ, (e) χ, (f) ƞ, (g) n, (h) tɕ, (i) ɦ

3.

Give the IPA symbol for each of the following consonants:

(a) voiced uvular nasal stop

(b) alveolar implosive stop

(c) voiced retroflex lateral approximant

(d) voiceless palatal affricate

(e) voiced labiodental nasal stop

4.

Give a phonetic characterisation of the following vowels:

(a) ɪ, (b) õ, (c) ø, (d) ɒ

Model Answer for (4a): ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In terms of height, [ɪ] is a high vowel, although not as high as [i].

However, the distinction between these two vowels is not usually

described in terms of height. Instead, [i] is characterised as tense,

whereas [ɪ] is lax. This distinction is analogous to that between [u]

(tense) and [ʊ], but [i] and [ɪ] are front vowels, whereas [u] and [ʊ]

are back vowels. Furthermore, [i] and [ɪ], in common with most front

vowels, are unrounded, whereas [u] and [ʊ] are rounded. Finally, [ɪ]

is an oral vowel and does not exhibit nasalisation. Thus, we have the

conclusion that [ɪ] is a high front unrounded lax oral vowel. It occurs in

such English words as bid and pit.

5.

Using the IPA chart, give a description of the following vowels:

(a) œ, (b) ɯ, (c) ʌ, (d) ə, (e) ɐ, (f) ã (g) y, (h) u, (i) ɛ, (j) œ̃, (k) ɨ

6.

Give the IPA symbol for each of the following vowels:

(a) high tense back rounded

(b) open (lax) mid front rounded

(c) central mid unrounded

(d) central low unrounded

(e) high tense front rounded

(f) high lax back rounded

7.

This is a text in IPA transcription of a short passage as it would be

spoken by a speaker with a British accent. Rewrite this in ordinary

orthography.

46

sounds

ðə nɔːθ wɪnd ənd ðə sʌn wə dɪspjuːtɪŋ wɪʧ wəz ðə stɹɒŋgə, wɛn ə tɹavlə

keɪm əlɒŋ ɹapt ɪn ə wɔːm klouk. ðeɪ əgɹiːd ðət ðə wɒn huː fəːst səksiːdəd ɪn meɪkɪŋ ðə travlə teɪk hɪz klouk ɒf ʃʊd bɪ kənsɪdəd stɹɒŋgə ðən ðɪ ʌðə. ðɛn ðə

nɔːθ wɪnd bluː əz hɑːd əz hiː kʊd, bʌt ðə mɔː hɪ bluː ðə mɔː klouslɪ dɪd ðə

travlə fould hɪz klouk əɹaund hɪm; ənd ət lɑːst ðə nɔːθ wɪnd geɪv ʌp ðɪ ətɛmpt.

ðɛn ðə sʌn ʃɒn aut wɔːmlɪ, ənd ɪmiːdjətlɪ ðə tɹavlə tʊk ɒf hɪz klouk. ənd sou ðə nɔːθ wɪnd wəz əblaɪʤd tə kənfɛs ðət ðə sʌn wəz ðə stɹɒŋgəɹ əv ðə tuː.

8.

The following is a text transcribed as it might be read by a British

speaker and an American speaker. Rewrite the text in orthography and

then comment on the differences in the two accents.

British version

jouhan səbastɪən bɑːk sɪkstiːn eɪtɪ faɪv tʊ sɛvn̩tiːn fɪftɪ keɪm frəm ə famlɪ

wɪʧ pɹəʤuːst ouvə naɪntɪ pɹəfɛʃn̩l̩ mjuːzɪʃn̩z bɑ:ks aʊtpʊt wəz ɪmɛns

kʌvɹɪŋ nɪəlɪ ɔːl ðə meɪʤə mjuːzɪkl̩ ʒɒnɹəz əv hɪz ɪəɹə ʧeɪmbə wəːks

ɔːkɛstɹəl swɪːts n̩ kn̩tʃɛːtouz piːsəz fə hɑːpsɪkɔːd n̩d ɔːgən ənd ən

ɪnɔːməs əmaunt əv kɔːɹəl mjuːzɪk fə ðə ʧəːʧ ðiː ounlɪ taɪp əv wə:k hiː

dɪdn̩t kəmpouz wəz ɒpɹə ðou sʌm wʊd seɪ ðət hɪz məʤɛstɪk sɛtɪŋ əv ðə sn̩t

maθjuː paʃn̩ ɪz ɪn fakt wɒn əv ðə greɪtɪst mɑ:stəpiːsəz əv ɔːl ɒpəɹatɪk lɪtrəʧə

American version

jouhæn səbæstɪən bɑːk sɪkstiːn eɪɾɪ faɪv tə sevn̩tiːn fɪfɾɪ keɪm frəm ə fæmlɪ

wɪʧ pɹəduːst ouvə naɪnɾɪ pɹəfeʃn̩l̩ mjuːzɪʃn̩z bɑ:ks aʊtpʊt wəz ɪmens kʌvɹɪŋ

nɪəlɪ ɔːl ðə meɪʤə mjuːzɪkl̩ ʒanɹəz əv hɪz ɛɹə – ʧeɪmbə wəks ɔkɛstɹəl

swɪːts n̩ knt̩ʃɛɾouz piːsəz fə hɑpsɪkɔd n̩d ɔgən ənd ən ɪnɔməs əmaunɾ əv

kɔɹəl mjuːzɪk fə ðə ʧəːʧ ðɪ ounlɪ taɪp əv kampəziʃn hɪ dɪdn̩t raɪt wəz apɹə, ðou sʌm wʊd seɪ ðət hɪz məʤɛstɪk sɛɾɪŋ əv ðə sn̩t mæθjuː pæʃn̩ ɪz ɪn fækt

wan əv ðə greɪɾəst mæstəpiːsəz əv ɔːl apəɹæɾɪk lɪɾɹəʧə