Dennis Showalter - Tannenberg - Clash of Empires

19For France’s approach to the Austrian and Balkan questions cf. John Keiger, France and the Origins of the First World War (New York, 1983), 82–83; David Dutton, “The Balkan Campaign and French War Aims in the Great War,” English Historical Review XCIV (1979), 97–113; and A. S. Mitrakos, France in Greece during World War I (New York, 1982). British policies are discussed in F. R Bridge, Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, 1906–14 (London, 1972); and Keith M. Wilson, “Isolating the Isolator: Cartwright, Grey and the Seduction of Austria-Hungary, 1908–1912,” Mitteilungen des Österreichischen Staatsarchivs XXV (1982), 169–198. H. Hanak, Great Britain and Austria-Hungary during the First World War: A Study in the Formation of Public Opinion (Oxford, 1962); and P. Schuster, Henry Wickham Steed und die Habsburgermonarchie (Vienna, 1970), cover the growing intellectual hostility to the Habsburg system in Britain.

20Pertti Luntinen, French Information on the Russian War Plans (Helsinki, 1984), 69 ff.

21Buchanan to Grey, Apr. 14, 1913, BD IX, 2, Nr. 849. Buchanan has no biography, but see the brief recent evaluation in Keith Neilson, Strategy and Supply. The Anglo-Russian Alliance, 1914–1917 (London, 1984), 24 ff., and the accompanying references.

22Buchanan to Grey, Mar. 19, Mar. 31, 1914, BD X, 2, Nrs. 530, 536; Sukhomlinov’s second comment is cited in F. N. Bradley, “Quelques aspects de la politique étrangère de Russe avant 1914 à travers les archives françaises,” Études slaves et est-européennes VII (1967), 100–101.

23Paul W. Schroeder, “World War I as Galloping Gertie: A Reply to Joachim Remak,” Journal of Modern History XLIV (1972), 345.

24Durnovo’s memorandum of Feb., 1914 to Tsar Nicholas is reprinted in F. Golder, Documents on Russian History, 1914–1917 (New York, 1927), 3 ff.; cf. D. C. B. Lieven, “Bureaucratic Authoritarianism in Late Imperial Russia: The Personality, Career, and Opinions of P. N. Durnovo,” Historical Journal XXVI (1983), 391–402. The activity of the “pro-Germans” in 1914 is generally discussed in M. Taube, La Politique Russe d’avant-guerre (Paris, 1928), 331 ff.

25German naval attaché’s report to Marineamt, Mar. 30, 1914; Krupp to Bethmann, Apr. 21, 1914, PAAA, Deutschland 131/36; and Pourtalés to Bethmann, Feb. 25, 1914, PAAA, Russland 72/96. Ruth Ann E. Roosa, “The Association of Industry and Trade, 1906–1914: An Examination of the Economic Views of Organized Industrialists in Pre-Revolutionary Russia” (Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1968); and Gregory Guroff, “The State and Industrialization in Russian Economic Thought” (Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, 1970), integrate analyses of the business community’s attitude to Germany into the general question of economic development in Russia.

26Report of Mar. 19, 1914, PAAA, Deutschland 131/36.

27W. Bruce Lincoln, In War’s Dark Shadow: The Russians Before the Great War (New York, 1983) brilliantly evokes the mood of prewar Russia. Judith Head, “Russian Attitudes toward Germany and Austria” (Ph.D. Dissertation, North Texas State University, 1981), and Lieven, Russia and the Origins of the First World War, 83 ff., discuss the growing spectrum of anti-German attitudes. For the political aspects cf. Marguerite Wolters, Aussenpolitische Fragen vor der vierten Duma (Hamburg, 1969), and M. Jablonowski, “Die Stellungnahme der russischen Parteien zur Aussenpolitik der Regierung von der russisch-englischen Verständi-gung bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg,” Forschungen zur Osteuropäschen Geschichte V (1957), 60–92. On the press war in general, cf. Klaus Wernecke, Der Wille zur Weltgeltung. Aussenpolitik und Öffentlichkeit am Vorabend des Ersten Weltkrieges (Düsseldorf, 1969), 249 ff.; and A. Jux, Der Kriegsschrecken des Frühjahrs 1914 in der europäischen Presse (Berlin, 1929). The latter work remains particularly useful for its many quotations from contemporary newspapers.

28For example Engelbrecht to Bethmann, Jan. 1, 1914, PAAA, Russland 72/96, specifically mentions the five-year lead time.

29W. A. Sukhomlinov, Erinnerungen (Berlin, 1924), p. 252; cf. Buchanan to Grey, Mar. 15, 1914, in British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print, Series A, Russia 1859–1914, ed. O. Lieven, 6 vols. (Washington, D.C., 1983), VI, Nr. 173.

30Louis Hirsch to Jagow, Mar. 12, 1914; Pourtalés to Bethmann, Mar. 13 and Mar. 16, 1914, PAAA, Deutschland 131/36; and Mar. 31, 1914, in PAAA, Russland 72/96.

31Fritz Fischer, War of Illusions, tr. M. Jackson (New York, 1975), 384 ff.; and Wernecke, Wille, 249 ff., tend to exaggerate the degree of government control over the press. Cf. Kurt Koszyk, Geschichte der deutschen Presse, Vol. II (Berlin, 1966), passim.

32Paul Rohrbach, Zum Weltvolk hindurch (Stuttgart, 1914). Rohrbach was also one of the founders of Das grössere Deutschland.

33Bethmann to foreign office, Apr. 22, 1914 and reply of Apr. 23, PAAA, Russland 72/96.

34Pourtalés to Bethmann, Mar. 16 and Apr. 14, 1914, PAAA, Deutschland 121/36, and Mar. 11, PAAA, Russland 72/96.

35Circular of the Friedrich Wilhelm Lebensversicherungs-Aktiengesellschaft zu Berlin, PAAA, Deutschland 131/36; report of the Italian embassy, Apr. 10, 1914, PAAA, Russland 72/96.

36Moltke to Jagow, Feb. 24, 1914, GP, XXXIX, Nr. 15839; General Staff report, Mar. 1914, in Bundesarchiv-Militärarchiv, RM5/1487.

37Conrad recorded Moltke’s observation to him in Aus meiner Dienstzeit, 5 vols. (Vienna, 1921–25), III, 670. Jagow’s account of the later conversation, written down only after the war, was published in Egmont Zechlin, “Motive und Taktik der Reichsleitung 1914. Ein Nachtrag,” Der Monat 209 (Feb., 1966), 91–95. His letter to Lichnowski of July 18, 1914, is in Die Deutschen Dokumente zum Kriegsausbruch, ed. W. Schücking, M. Montgelas, rev. ed. 5 vols. (Berlin, 1927), I, Nr. 72 (hereafter cited as DD). The kaiser’s opinion is from Max Warburg, Aus meinen Aufzeichnungen (Glückstadt, 1952), 29.

38Wilson’s comment is in Egmont Zechlin, “Cabinet versus Economic Warfare in Germany: Policy and Strategy During the Early Month of the First World War,” in The Origins of the First World War, ed. H. W. Koch (London, 1971), 150. Cf. Buchanan to Grey, Mar. 18, 1914, and Buchanan to Nicholson, Mar. 18, 1914, BD X, 2, Nrs. 528, 529; Grey to Bertie, May 1, 1914, BD X, 2, Nr. 541.

39Yale University, Edward M. House Papers, Diary, Vol. IV, Jan. 1-July 3, 1914, entries of May 10, May 23, and June 1; House to Wilson, May 28, 1914, in Edward M. House Papers, Select Correspondence, 119a/4232.

40House Papers, Diary, Vol. V, July 4, 1914-Jan. 1, 1915, entry of Aug. 30. House did add China to the President’s list.

41Sazonov to Beneckendorff, Feb. 19, 1914, in Die internationalen Beziehungen im Zeitalter des Imperialismus. Dokumente aus den Archiven der Zarischen und der Provisorischen Regierung, ed. O. Hoetszch, Series I, 5 vols. (Berlin, 1931), Series I, Vol. 1, Nr. 289 (hereafter cited as Int.Bez); Nicolson to Bunsen, Apr. 27, 1914; and Grey to Bertie, May 1, 1914, BD X, 2, Nrs. 540, 541.

42The conversation is quoted in Georges Michon, The Franco-Russian Alliance, 1891–1917, tr. N. Thomas (Paris, 1929), 274 ff. For the Three Years’ Law see most recently Gerd Krumeich, Armaments and Politics in France on the Eve of the First World War, tr. S. Conn (Dover, N.H.: 1984).