Barbara Moran: The Day We Lost the H-Bomb

210 In the spring and summer of 1966:The background of the diplomatic climate leading up to the base negotiations can be found in James E. Miller, ed., Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968 , vol. 12, Western Europe (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2001), and Airgram, Embassy in Madrid to Department of State, “U.S. Policy Assessment,” May 7, 1966 (LBJ).

210 It refused:As of December 1966, the nuclear overflights were still under discussion. See Cable, Embassy in Madrid to SECSTATE, December 10, 1966, #9187 (LBJ).

210 It wanted the United States:Cable, Department of State to Embassy in Madrid, May 6, 1966 (NARA).

210 In May, The New York Timesreported:Benjamin Welles, “Spain Offers 3 Proposals on Gibraltar,” The New York Times , May 27, 1966, p. 19.

210 The base negotiations got under way:Memorandum of Conversation, November 13, 1967, “Base Negotiations” (NARA). This document is the earliest record found by the author that lists American and Spanish officials meeting for the express purpose of discussing the bases.

210 He had been lobbying hard:Memorandum for the Files, December 5, 1967, “Spanish Base Negotiations and Palomares” (NARA).

210 “The accident brought home”:Ibid.

210 On January 6, 1968, Duke was dining:The story of Duke’s return to Washington is from Angier Biddle Duke, Living History interview, October 24, 1990, pp. 20–21, and author’s interview with Robin Duke, June 7, 2007.

211 Today, the once barren coast:The description of modern Palomares comes from the author’s visit to the area, February 24–28, 2007.

212 Manolo says the town:Manolo and Dolores González interview, February 24, 2007.

212 though it refuses to say:On occasion, the U.S. government has released information about funding for a specific part of Project Indalo. For instance, a 1973 document obtained by the author states that the United States had provided approximately $250,000 in technical equipment and $25,000 a year in operating funds. (See C. R. Richmond, “Remarks on Palomares — Seven Years Later,” March 9, 1973 [NNSA, FOIA].) However, the full cost of the project has never been disclosed. The author made numerous requests for interviews with Mohandas Bhat, the DOE project officer for Palomares, and CIEMAT representatives, all of which were refused.

212 It has also tested chickens:Emilio Iranzo interview, February 16, 2007.

212 Every year, about 150 residents:The testing numbers come from the DOE Web site on Project Indalo: www.hss.energy.gov/HealthSafety/IIPP/hservices/ps_msurv.html.

212 these tests show that about 5 percent:This statistic also comes from the Project Indalo Web site (see previous reference). However, the information on plutonium ingestion was removed from the Web site when it was updated. The author has a printout of the earlier Web page in her files.

212 This is proven, they say:Ibid. and Emilio Iranzo interview, February 16, 2007.

212 Villagers who visit Madrid:Operación Flecha Rota: Accidente nucleár de Palomares (Almería) , directed by José Herrera, 2007.

213 Only one small study:Pedro Martínez Pinilla et al., “Evolución de la mortalidad en Palomares antes y después del accidente nuclear de 1966,” El Médico 16, no. 1 (1987). An electronic copy of this article was given to the author by José Herrera Plaza, a documentary filmmaker in Spain, along with an English translation done for Oak Ridge National Laboratories. Herrera downloaded hundreds of Indalo documents from the DOE Web site to his home in Spain, which he generously shared with the author. The author, despite numerous attempts, was never able to download the same documents from the DOE Web site to her home in the United States.

213 the accident continues to haunt:See, e.g., Paul Geitner, “Spanish Town Struggles to Forget Its Moment on the Brink of a Nuclear Cataclysm,” The New York Times , September 12, 2008.

213 a large irrigation pool:Emilio Iranzo interview, February 16, 2007; and E. Iranzo et al., “Air Concentrations of 239Pu and 240Pu and Potential Radiation Doses to Persons Living near Pu-Contaminated Areas in Palomares, Spain,” Health Physics , April 1987, p. 460.

213 CIEMAT purchased about twenty-three acres:www.hss.energy.gov/HealthSafety/IIPP/hservices/ps_msurv.html.

213 It forbade farmers:Manolo and Dolores González interview, February 24, 2007.

213“Nowthey put a fence”:Ibid.

213 Between November 21, 2006:Rafael Méndez, “Detectada contaminación en Palomares fuera de las zonas expropiadas y valladas,” El País , July 1, 2007.

213 In April 2008, CIEMAT announced:Rafael Méndez, “España halla las zanjas radiactivas que EEUU ocultó en Palomares,” El País , April 4, 2008.

213 “small radioactive metal objects”:Ibid.

213 Though the U.S. and Spanish:See, e.g., Memo, Barrett Fountos to Tom Bell et al., “Trip Report to Spain with Accomplishments Related to Palomares Program Review,” September 23, 1998 (author’s collection). In this memo, provided to the author by José Herrera Plaza, Emilio Iranzo is noted to have said, “Important to recognize that Pu was left at the site. There were not enough drums to take all the Pu away.” Chet Richmond, an American scientist, added, “There were more drums brought in than were taken away…. Still need to clarify location of pits.” Herrera has long suspected that radioactive material was secretly buried in Spain, an assertion that seems to be supported by this memo and the recent discoveries in Palomares.

213 they widened the “contaminated” zone:Méndez, “Detectada contaminación en Palomares,” July 1, 2007. The zone was widened from 90,000 to 300,000 square meters, converted into square yards by the author.

214 Manolo is not worried:Manolo and Dolores González interview, February 24, 2007.

214 “Minisubs”:James V. Healion, “Boom on 2-Man Subs Seen,” The Washington Post , June 25, 1967.

214 In 1967 and 1968, Alvindove:Alvin history is from WHOI Web site: www.whoi.edu/page.do? pid=10737.

214 By late 1968, it had completed 307:William O. Rainnie and William I. Milwee, “How We Raised the Alvin from 5000 Feet,” Popular Mechanics , January 1970, p. 93.

214Aluminaut , meanwhile, took scientists:Author’s interview with George Tyler, September 26, 2006.

214 a freak accident:The description of Alvin’s sinking comes from Department of the Navy, Naval Ship Systems Command, Recovery of Deep Research Vehicle Alvin (Washington, D.C.: Naval Ship Systems Command, December 1969); Rainnie and Milwee, “How We Raised the Alvin”; and Kaharl, Water Baby , pp. 115–119.

215 was estimated to weigh about 8,800:Department of the Navy, Naval Ship Systems Command, Recovery of Deep Research Vehicle Alvin, p. 6.

215 “Leave that damn toy”:Kaharl, Water Baby , p. 122.

215 Salvage experts agreed:The description of Alvin’s recovery comes from Department of the Navy, Naval Ship Systems Command, Recovery of Deep Research Vehicle Alvin; Eugene B. Mitchell and William I. Milwee, “Recovery of Alvin —A Practical Ocean Engineering Operation,” Naval Engineers Journal , December 1969, pp. 13–22; Rainnie and Milwee, “How We Raised the Alvin”; and Kaharl, Water Baby , pp. 121–124.